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History Introduction - Type here

Antiquity (c. 200,000 B.C.) to Medieval (c. 1100 A.D.)

The Paleolithic Era

Fossil and Archaeological evidence shows us that humans began appearing in the eastern regions of Africa, specifically in the regions near present-day Kenya. (c. 198,000 B.C.) Almost as soon as humans began to spread into the jungles and seas surrounding Africa, primitive music began to develop. Body percussion was the apex form of instrumentation during the beginning years of man. However, striking one’s body to create ‘music’ was not the intention, there was no connection to striking the body to producing a sound to be appreciated. This however was short-lived, using body percussion assisted in the hunt, dancing and rituals, and soon became important in primitive East African culture, it still was taken seriously, and not used as a recreational outlet, such as for entertainment purposes.1 As human ideologies developed, they began to strike other objects. Sticks were important, as well as stones, especially when it came to testing sounds. One of the earliest human societies, the Zulu, were known to beat their shields and hunting bows in times of battle, a trait that would be used by civilizations throughout the world. Striking objects in order to obtain a specific sound slowly began to incorporate itself into the culture of the area, using objects that have been made for other purposes, such as bows and shields for battle, began to replace body percussion. After a successful hunt, a hunter would place the bows in front of him with the string facing him, and strike the string to assist in the rhythm of the victory dances for a successful hunt. As stones and sticks would become more involved in societies to create tools, early man of the Paleolithic Era (c. 198,000 B.C. – 10,000 B.C.) would begin looking for objects that resonated. Having this goal in mind, man began to discover idiophones, an object that vibrates when struck to produce a sound. These idiophones would be shaken, stamped, scraped, struck, or struck together (concussion). These included, but were not limited to: Proto-Claves, Xylophones, Wood Blocks, Rattles, Rubbed Shells, Scrapers, Stamped Pits, and Proto-Cymbals (Stone). Most if not all of these instruments, were created from wood, or the flora and fauna around the primitive societies. These instruments would comprise the Early Strata Instruments of the Paleolithic Era of the Stone Age.

The Neolithic Era

As we progress through the Neolithic Era, we can follow man as he journeys throughout the world. After the first Ice Age in 58,000 B.C., humans leave Africa and begin a journey through India and the Far East. Some humans leave the continent and began island-hopping until they reached Australia in 48,000 B.C.. In 38,000 B.C., evidence has been found that suggest humans began to travel north and east, to fill out the rest of the continent, and by 33,000 B.C., the Middle East and Asia had become very populated. Shortly before the Mid-Neolithic Era begins in 15,200 B.C., creativity begins to appear amongst the peoples of the world, specifically Africa. Humans there would begin to create wollogallu’s, which translates to ‘Drum of the Earth’. Stamping pits, which were platforms made of wood, would be placed over a hand-dug pit. A larger pit would then be dug next to the first one, and when the Stamping Pit was struck, vibrations would be felt through the second, larger pit, and the earthen cavity would create a larger, resonant sound. Humans also started to place the skins of animals over hollowed out stumps, or pots, and would then strike the skin with a bare hand to create a sound. These innovations would take us into the Mid-Neolithic Era of the World. Also, during 13,000 B.C., humans use the Bering Strait to travel from Eastern Europe to the Americas. Once the Mid-Neolithic Era (15,200 B.C. – 4,500 B.C.) of the Stone Age begins, we see new instruments begin to appear on many continents. Two cultures of significance would begin to produce slit drums. These drums were generally made of wood, and would either have a slit traveling through them to produce the resonance, or they would be hollowed out and have a slits that would resemble two tongues that would be in an H shape. The tongue slabs would be struck to produce two distinct sounds. It’s important to note, that wooden ‘gongs’ may often be referring to the African slit drum. In China, the t’ak was developed, which was a wooden slit drum. It would have a single resonating chamber and would be struck to produce a sound. In Africa, the gong would often be crafted from large logs that would be hollowed out. The wooden tongues would then be carved into the log and it would be adorned with carvings. It was often associated with housing the spirits of the dead. The Stamping Pit also would evolve into the Stamping Tube, which was a cylindrical drum that would be struck upon the ground to make a sound, rather than digging a hole and placing a platform over it. The most important contribution to percussion instruments of the Stone Age however, was the invention of the membranophone: the drum. As this instrument becomes prominent, music is used more for recreation in some cultures and less for serious events. We then move into the transition period of the Bronze Age, we move away from the Mid-Neolithic, and into Late Strata and Recent Neolithic Era.

The Bronze Age

As the drum begins to appear, at this point in most cultures, it is a frame drum of varying sizes. From anywhere to a small wooden frame only 9-12 inches in diameter, to frame drums that stand 4 feet tall and require two people to play them. As we enter the Bronze Age (c. 3,000 B.C.), we begin to see a diversity among the cultures of the world with their respective creations of percussion instruments. In Africa, drums were used for special events, such as births and deaths, important public events, dances, and communication between villages. Drums that were used for communication could be as large as 10 feet tall. The Leader, or King of some villages may have a special drum to play that was only used by him. Sometimes, a family of drums may be crafted from one tree. If the drums were all made in the same fashion, the largest would be the ‘mother’ drum, and they would all have scenes depicted on them, or proverbs. In the Bantu area of Africa (Congo-Nigeria), there was a popular skin drum used called the Ingqongqo, a goblet-shaped drum. A similar drum was also popular in South Africa among the Swazi, there it was called an Intambula. As time went on, and communication became easier among the peoples of Africa, the enormous log drums slowly began to fade and the African kettledrum became the standard African drum. A mid-size drum, standing around 2-3 feet tall, it would have a membrane stretched tight over the top portion of the wooden drum. Gut cord would pull the top head to the bottom head, which was not used for playing. The Kalengo however is one of Africa’s most fascinating drums. A double-headed drum that would either have a cylindrical or hourglass wooden shell. Two skins would be pulled by gut cord, but it would not pull it tight, by tightening the cord with the arm, one could tighten the head and replicate the inflections of the human voice. Thus, giving it the name, the talking drum, it was the next evolutionary step in communication between African peoples by way of drums. The Kalengo was cut and crafted from trees that were close to well-beaten paths of travelers, it was believed these trees knew language better than the trees rooted farther into the forest. A language was developed and used between peoples chiefly in the Nigerian and Guinea forests, entire conversations could be held using this drum language. During Egypt’s First and Second Dynasty, the country was beginning to spread so large that a monarchy would have to be put in place to control the territory, this time has been designated as the Early Dynastic Period (3100 B.C. – 2686 B.C.). Music of this time was reserved for the elite, this was in part because of the priests and religious authorities of Egypt, and this greatly hindered the progress of music. Even though drums were not prominently used during the Early Dynastic Period, castanets and sistrums were used. The castanet would be two clam-shaped pieces of wood or stone that would be clasped together to produce a resonant sound. Sistrums were a type of idiophone that would have a jingle of some sort that was suspended, it would then be shaken in order to produce a sound. When sistrums were shaken, it was believed to signify the power of the Egyptian Queen, sistrums were also known by Iba, Sehem, and Kemken. Another instrument closely related to the sistrum was the menat, it would be made of wood or ivory, and it was used as a proto-clave. In fact, early reliefs depict that when grapes would be smashed with the feet, people would be standing on the side beating menat’s in time with the feet stamping. The menat was associated with Hathor, the goddess of music, dance, foreign lands, and fertility. Later, during the 18th Dynasty, sistrums would be associated with the god Aton., Like Egypt, China is also in the beginning stages of its Empirical development, the time before the Chinese Dynasties is known as the Neolithic Era (c. 8500 B.C. – 2070 B.C.). There are some written records of percussion during this time, there is even a record written that the drum was introduced to China around 3500 B.C., and was referred to as barbarous instruments from Turkey and Tibet. Emperor Shun of the Neolithic Era is regarded with having been the first to divide the instruments into categories due to the philosophy of Fuh Shi, who was the followed philosophy of the time. Fuh Shi revolved much of his belief around the number eight. Because of this, seasons were broken up into eight categories, and some percussion instruments corresponded to these seasons: Autumn/Winter – Stone Chime, Autumn – Bell Chime, Spring/Summer – Tiger Box, and Winter – Drum. What was interesting about the double-headed frame drum of China, was that inside the heads, they would place rice husks, which would give the drum a rattle, or buzzing type sound, this drum was known as Po-Fu. In a Chinese Book of War believed to have been written circe 5,000 B.C., there is instruction that “The drum was used to beat the assembly, and in the advancement, the bell as a signal to halt.” The Chinese also had created what would be called today a Chinese Temple Block, or Dragon Mouth: the Mu-Yü. It ranged in size from being able to fit in one’s hand, to resting on enormous cushions. They also had another wood block drum previously described, known as the t’ak. A scraped instrument known as a Tiger Box, or Yü. Was a resonant wooden chamber, often carved into the shape of Tiger, would be scraped with a bamboo stick in order to produce a sound. They also had crafted a clapper made from flat bamboo strips known as a tchoung-tou. What the Chinese were most famous at, was the development of metals into cymbals. The YoShu, a written record of Chinese history suggests 2 things: 1. That China is the oldest cymbal-producing country, and 2. They were formed in conjunction with Tibet, Turkey and India. What further supports this, is that Chinese cymbal proportions are the exact same as Turkey, 81% copper and 19% tin. However, Chinese cymbals are known to have larges bosses with upward turned rims, and produce a brittle sound and texture. What also separates China from the other countries in terms of cymbal-production however, is the importance that they place on them. Even before the bronze age, China was using resonant stones and striking them together to create some form of sound. Whether it’s the Stone Era rocks being struck together, or the Bronze Age cymbals, China considers cymbals with the utmost importance. Other countries have also started to develop their musical identity, through Mantras and Vedas, we have a written record of India’s early history. One of the earliest Indian percussion instruments include the Aghāti, an early clapper. There was also an early drum called a Dundubihi, it was made of wood, and had a kettle shape with a cow skin stretched over it. It is also likely that this drum was a precursor to the ancient Carnatic Indian drum, the mrdanga. The mrdanga was important to vocal music and the Mahãdeva dance. Tibet was another country that, like China, held an importance on cymbals, specifically bells. They had crafted a small hand-bell called a dril-bul, and it was used in religious services.

The Bronze Age in Egypt

As we move into 2,000 B.C. - 1,000 A.D, we see the rise of a strong Egyptian Kingdom, and an Imperial Chinese. Other countries begin to adopt their own musical identities, either adapting current instruments, or creating their own. The Old Kingdom of Egypt was generally associated with the instrumentation discussed before, in the Old Kingdom music was reserved for the upper class, but that changed once the drum became popularized. As we enter the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2060 B.C. - 1802 B.C.) we see the lower class begin to have more prominence in music, however the only way you could become a professional musician was if you were the immediate descendant of one. There is a relief that was to have been created during the time of Pharaoh Osorokon II. The relief depicts two men playing a frame drum that stood three to four feet tall, one man held the drum, while the other played it. This specific drum was believed to be double-headed, and played from both sides, this is from the disappearance of the player’s right hand behind the drum. During the Mid- and New- Kingdoms, the barrel drum became increasingly used. They were created from a tightening tourniquet, to a system of thongs that would pull the drum tight, as well as serve for protection of the drum shell. Frame drums were greatly associated with two gods, Sekhmet (A goddess solar deity, and known as the goddess of warriors and healing), and Bes (Protector of the household, mother, children, and child birth). Other drums that were popular at the time not only in Egypt, but in other parts of Northern Africa, and immigrating to the Middle East, were the goblet-drum, also known as a djembe or darabukka. Egypt of the time had two kinds of cymbals, tinkling, and crashing, and they were believed to have been introduced during the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. Archaeologists have recovered cymbals from the tomb of Ankhape, who was a religious priest at the time. Excavations in Thebes has also revealed crotales, a kind of tinkling cymbal, which date back to circe 200 B.C. These crotales have also been found attached to split bamboo, or a wooden stick, they were perhaps called cymbals, or clappers. Bells also began to be crafted, and were often made of either gold, or silver. Tambourines were also used, of which there were two types: 1. Royal tambourines, these were often eleven inches in diameter, had deep hoops and five sets of two jingles. 2. Lower Order/Common Tambourines, these would be crafted with the same dimensions, sometimes with the exception of a deep hoop, and did not have jingles.

The Bronze Age in the Far East

In China, excavations have revealed sonorous stones from the Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C. - 1046 B.C.), continuing to show us that even 1,500 years later, stones are still being held in importance, now along with cymbals, and the rest of the percussive instruments of China. Stones were often crafted into musical instruments known as lithophones. In two instances, a grouping of these lithophones has been discovered, once in 1949 by the French ethnologist Georges Condominas in N’Dut Lieng Krac village in the Vietnamese central highlands province of Dac Lac. Then again in 2005, another set of 11 lithophonic stones had been discovered in the southern province of Binh Duong near My Loc village in Tan My Commune of the Tan Uyen District. Both sets of lithophones are believed to be roughly 3,000 years old. By this time, the tuned lithophones were becoming greatly important as well as the stone chimes. These were developed and used the most frequently in the territory of Annam, which is the southeastern part of present-day China. The reason for the development of lithophones was probably from the excess of volcanic rock. The Nio-King was a special lithophone reserved only for the Chinese Emporer to play on. Hand bells probably made from metal or stone that were used for military purposes began to appear in the Tang Dynasty (1046 B.C. - 256 B.C.), metal Chinese bells were known as chung. More drums also began to appear, three large drums began to take residence in important buildings. The hiuen-kou was a very large drum, and was built specifically to be housed in the Imperial Palace in 1122 B.C. The tou-ku and ying-ku started to be placed in opposite sides of temples, the reason for this was so that the energy from one drum would be able to balance the other out. In grand halls in certain important buildings, another large drum named the t’ang-ku began to appear. In southern China, another drum began to appear that was later adopted by Japan: the kakko. This was a laced drum, and is believed to be the precursor to certain Japanese hand drums. During the time of Emperor Xuanwu of the Xianbei Dynasty, the gong was invented. A recorded document written during the time, known as the Hsi Yu explains that development of the gong is uncertain but was probably developed between Tibet and Burma. The gong however, was adopted quickly in China, and was used for many things. In higher society, as well as government uses, the gong would be used for music, war, macabre dances, drama accompaniment, transmitting messages, retreat calls for the military, and as a decoy during the hunt. In lower class society, it served some different purposes, these included, healing sickness, attracting wind, chasing away evil spirits and defense against ghosts, and demon exorcism. In the lower societies, it was also believed that bathing from a gong would promote good health, and drinking from a gong would enforce an oath. Good quality gongs would be made with 80% copper, and 20% tin or bronze. Lesser quality gongs would be made with 70% copper, and 10% of either lead or tin, and the remaining 10% may consist of other material. Gongs that produced a darker sound would often have a quantity of iron as well. While the gongs took some more finesse when crafted in order to produce the desired pitch, tam-tam’s were often the more adorned of the two, having inscriptions, or artwork upon them. One of the more recent additions to the collections of percussion instruments was a drum called a kero, used in the T’ang Dynasty (618 A.D. - 907 A.D.). This drum was used primarily to symbolize the appearance of dawn. It was a large drum and probably crafted in the same style as the the temple drums. As cymbals were important and made advancements and changes in China, the same thing was happening in Africa. Water drums began to be used, these were gourds made of clay that would be turned upside down in buckets of water in order to produce a sound that would change pitch as the surface of the gourd was slapped. Slit gongs which resembled the chinese wood block, and rasps that would be scraped to create a sound would be made from wood or iron. Bells also became popular among the royalty, a leader or king’s appearance in a village would be preceded by bells. Bells would also accompany a judge’s decision, marking it as final. Different types of rattles would also begin to appear, especially in the dancing community, rattles would be worn as necklaces, bracelets, calflets, and ankle bracelets. Shekere’s which were large gourds covered in a net that would have beads intertwined could be shaken and struck, they were built to accompany dancers. Metal instruments also began to become prominent in African cultures. These would include the plucked idiophone, the sansa, as well as small bells, jingles and gongs. These gongs were made of circular bronze, or beaten iron, and were believed to have the power to overcome the spirits. Iron was in a higher quantity, and so beaten iron gongs were certainly more prominent. Iron was also made to create other instruments such as agogo bells which at one point may have been called a double gong-gong. A real testament to the ingenuity of the ancient human, was the development and creation of the ambira, which later became the xylophone.. Having its start as just resonant pieces of wood placed together in a scalar fashion, it evolved into a sophisticated instrument of the time. Using the resonant wooden proto-bars, vines would be used a kind of rope to tie the wooden pieces to gourds of varying size. This was done with no European or Asian influence, we know this because the African xylophone is constructed in reverse order of pitches as opposed to the Asian xylophone. ====The Bronze Age in Mesopotamia and the Middle East==== The area of Mesopotamia also was starting to become populated and incorporate music into secular forms (1,000 B.C. - 500 B.C.), this was due to strong influence from Egypt. Mesopotamian art from the time depicts all sizes of frame drums, with the shallow frame drum being the most common. Small cylindrical drums played horizontally were also depicted, as well as large-footed goblet shaped drums. A small single-headed drum carried vertically on a belt and played with both hands may have been an early form of a tabor or naker. Mesopotamian instruments also included clappers, sistrum, bells, and cymbals. Timbrels were also common in this area. They would be small round or square frame drums with deep hoops and few or no jingles. Hebrew music was also in the same area, with the central hub being Jerusalem. Instruments of this time included little tof’s which were little drums, small bells, and cymbals. In circa 1,000 B.C. during the time of King David (who was, himself a professional musician and would organize orchestras), and Solomon, larger cymbals began to appear as well as the sistrum which was likely adopted from Egypt. The only drum excavated from the Israel area was (likely) a double-headed frame drum, that would have been played exclusively by women. King David also likely saw the introduction of the gong, castanets, and tambourines., After Egypt had incorporated the drum, Persia adopted it for military use. Specifically the frame drums and tom-toms (double-headed drums). Many of the instruments used in Mesopotamia were likely incorporated into Persian and Arabian instrumentation. They would have frame drums that would be called tambourines, that had been around since pre-Islamic times. There were two types of tambourines, the round which would be called da’ira, and the other being rectangular shaped. The largest of the round drums however, would be called a ghirbãl, and the double-headed drum of the area would be called an atambor. Orchestras in Arabia would generally consist of many drums and be accompanied by singing. These drums would be made in two ways, they would either be small, shallow drums made of pottery with cord stretched across the head; or would be a small wooden rim with parchment for a thin head, these would be crafted with and without jingles. These drums would be used similarly to Persia to confuse and frighten the enemy in battle, bells would also be used to break down the morale of superstitious Turkish soldiers.

The Bronze Age in Greece and Rome

Although the Greeks main contribution to music would have been music theory, they used percussion instruments as well that were mainly immigrated to the country. This included castanets, cymbals, and tambourines. It is assumed through common trade routes, that cymbals were brought from Egypt to Greece and would be known as kymbala. We can deduce that they came from Egypt due to them being very similar, wide, flat, with a large flat boss in the middle which acted as a resonating chamber. As cymbals started to immigrate from Western Asia, cymbals slowly began to be used for more secular purposes. Starting to be used to worship the goddess Cybele, they would then be used in the service of the god Dionysus, and finally begin to be incorporated into Greek theater. This would include crashing and tinkling cymbals, and a third cymbal that was specific to only Greece: the discus. The discus would have a large central hole in the middle of a curved body with a downward turned rim and would be suspended on a rope, it’s assumed they gained this idea from Asia, but formed it on their own. In both Greece and Rome, the double-headed frame drum was the popular drum to use during the time, they would also use clappers known as krótala. The clappers were adapted to be fit on soles of dancers shoes and be used as time-keepers during dances, in Greece, these were called kroupalon, and in Rome, they would be called Scabellum. Pairs of Bronze finger cymbals that resemble Egyptian crotales have been excavated in both Greece and Rome. Romans also used gongs and metal discus’, they referred to tambourines as light drums, and goblet drums of Arabia were adapted and crafted with bronze for military purposes. Rome was known as the bridge between Egyptian, Greek, and Hebrew music as well as early Catholic music. As the Roman Catholic Church rose to power, percussion would be outed from the musical orchestra due to its association and provocation of war.,

The Bronze Age in India

India had developed some new instruments and began to developed a strong northern and southern musical identity. The Hindustani tradition had developed a corresponding instrument to the mrdanga, the tablä. Comprised of two separate drums, the lower bayan, and the higher tablä. This pair of drums would be played with both hands and comprises most of the Indian Hindustani percussion instrumentation. Small Carnatic tambourines would be called däsar, or tapputtai. Small gongs would also be used, they were known as sẽmakkalam. Hindustani would have clashing cymbals known as jhãnja, brahma, and tãlon. The tãlon was a pair of small basin cymbals, and would be made from a heavy metal. They were usually unconnected but would be struck on the edges to produce a bell-like tone. The Hindustani tinkling cymbals would be known as mandira, tãla, and jãlrã. Indian castanets of Hindustani and Carnatic would include chiplã, kurtar, and chittaka. India also had two primitive xylophones, one known as kãshta-tarang, and the other known as jalatarang. The current name for jalatarang however, is called an udaka vãdyum. Excavations in northwest India have uncovered bronze pieces that had a central boss and upturned rims, these were believed to be lids, but also are believed to be precursors to cymbals. The Tibetans were also masters at the art of crafting cymbals, bells being as important to the Tibetans as resonant stone and cymbals were to China. One of the first developed small Tibetan hand-bells, a dril-bul, was used in religious ceremonies. The two cymbals that were native to Tibet but had made their way to the Assyrians, Israelites, and the Greeks, were the clashing cymbals, the tsöl-rog. These were used in Earth worship, and had narrow rims, with large central projections, they were held vertically and vigorously struck in a horizontal motion. The tinkling cymbals, named the rol-mo, were used in Heaven worship, they were broad rimmed and had small central projections, they were held in a horizontal position and struck softly with vertical movement. A pair of laced kettledrums, the idu-mãn, were possibly similar to the Indian Hindustani tablä. The large single-headed frame drum of the time was known as the lãgna.

The Bronze Age in Japan

During the Bronze Age, China made contact with Japan, who had not been in contact with the mainland for several thousand years due to a land bridge ceasing to exist. Once China made contact though, Japan began trading and communicating with the rest of the world and even incorporating instruments into their culture. One of the drums integrated into Japan from China was known as the kakko, this drum that originally assisted in Shinto temples would now lead the Japanese Bugaku orchestra. In 588 A.D. Japanese men would be sent to Korea to learn the art of the gakko. The main drums of Japan are known generally as taikos, and they are generally created in two different ways. The first, is drums that are have braced or nailed heads, these will usually have the ending of daiko. The second are hand drums with hourglass shells known as tsuzumi’s and were likely developed from the kakko. The o-daiko had a nailed head and was often used in temple services. A smaller version was also created after, known as the ko-daiko. Another drum with a nailed head is known as a tsuri-daiko, this drum is usually suspended and is used in Bugaku dances. Another drum popular with entertainment purposes is the uta-daiko, the song drum, and it is used often in the Geza theater performances. The uta-daiko is also reminiscent of the taiko drum used in the Noh orchestra. Shinto monks were also known to use percussion instrumentation. This included the Japanese frame drum: the uchiwa-daiko. They would also use a wood plaque type instrument called a han, a wood block called a mo-kugyo, and three different gongs, kei (or hokyo), a temple gong, waniguchi, an entrance gong, and the furin, a wind gong. Wooden clappers named shakubyoshi’s would be used even before the Chinese made contact. During the Bronze Age however, the suzu, a bell-tree began to be used in folk Shinto music during the sixth and seventh centuries. Gongs were also used in the Bugaku orchestras and were known as shoko, dora, hi, and atari-gane. Cymbals were crafted to sound mysterious and gloomy, they would also be used in funeral services.

Middle America

As we approach 1100 A.D., we can draw our attention to the New World. Incans in South America would use drums and rattles made of a variety of materials, clay, wood, and sometimes human bones. On the south coast, the Nazca people would use ceramic drums, anthropomorphic figures with bulbous bodies would form the sounding chambers for the ceramic drum. The mouth of the drum would then be covered by a stretched skin, the drum would then be either placed upside down, or sideways to play. The Andean people in the Andes mountains would play music in their homes, for entertainment, or for domestic rituals. Music was also at the center of political and religious activities. This included processions, burials, feasts, festivals, and staged ceremonies. The Maya of Central America would use large turtle shell drums, and would use deer hooves or antlers as beaters. An animal skin would be stretched over the turtle carapace for resonance. The other two drums that were used often by the Maya were the pax, which was made of ceramic, clay, or gourd. The drum would be held in one hand and the other would beat the animal skin head. Players may also shake rattles or would be wearing shell jingling belts. The other drum resembled the Aztec huehuetl, it was a barrel drum that had a skin held tight by nails. A little farther north is the Aztec, there several drums were used. This included the ayotl, which was a drum made from a turtle shell, probably in the same way that the Mayan crafted theirs. Another drum used by the Aztec was the teponaztli, which was a horizontal log drum, played with mallets. They also shared the huehuetl with the Mayans as well, this was the only drum played with hands and not mallets or sticks. Drums would accompany music or be used as a chamber setting, or in battle. The teponaztli and huehuetl were believed by the Aztec to have been fallen gods, and were banished to Earth in the form of drums. Rattles were also common and were filled with beads or pebbles.

North America

In North America, double-headed drums were used often, mostly in communal singing or events. They were used for keeping time for the singing with people around the drum all beating it together with beaters. It is a sacred drum and would often be left out in the sun in order to tighten the head in preparation for use. There were also frame drums, which were probably double-headed as well since they were portable versions of the communal singing drums. Log drums were also used, a skin would be sewn into a hollow log and played the same way as the double-headed drum. Square drums, which were square versions of the log drums were used often by people on the Pacific Coast, specifically the Costanoan, Coastal Miwok, and Pomo. Skin drums were also used, a skin of an animal would be left in the sun with four poles attached to it and stuck in the ground. It would be stretched using the poles. The skin drum was used mostly by the Arapaho in the Rocky Mountains, and the Northern Plain Indians which were probably the war-torn Chippewa. Water drums were also used, different from their African counterparts, iron or other metal kettles pots would have water inside and would be struck with a thin stick. In these societies, drums would be used for ceremonial purposes, to make music or accompany dance, gather the tribe, or send signals. Certain tribes, like the Santa Domingo of the Southwest area, would name their drums and treat them as people. Container rattles made from hollow gourds, turtle shells, shaped and dried rawhide, or buffalo horn, would be filled with beads, seeds, or pebbles. A handle would then be inserted into one end of the rattle for use. Hoof rattles, generally made from deer would be attached to a stick that would have holes drilled into it. This way, when the stick was shaken, the hooves would rattle. Other instruments of Native American people include rasps made from sticks, whistles made from wood, clay or bone, or clappers, which would be made from thin sticks. The Lummi tribe would also create concussion sticks made from cylindrical sticks measuring 7-12 inches in length. A special whistle known as the eagle whistle would be made from the long bones of a bald or golden eagle. The bones would be boiled to remove the fat and marrow which would then be used as a salve for the eyes. The eagle whistle was considered sacred and would be used by such tribes as the Ute in the sacred Sun Dance. The eagle whistle is said to make a sound resembling its namesake. When it is in use, it would be worn around the neck, and when it was not in use, it would be carried in a special buffalo skin pouch for safekeeping.

Medieval (476 A.D.) to Classical (c. 1750)

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Early Romantic Era (c. 1800 - 1910)

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Late Romantic (c. 1900) to Early Modern (c. 1950)